During the wars of the Roman Republic -- the era of Roman history that followed the legendary kings and came before the period of the Roman Empire -- Rome gradually expanded. At first, Rome expanded throughout the Italic peninsula. Then, with international experience gained in the Punic Wars, it spread further around the Mediterranean, creating the giant Roman Empire. Many of the details are not known, others are confusing and murky.


As Rome conquered territories in the Italic peninsula, it

1. annexed some territories -- creating
   • ager publicus 'public land' and
   • coloniae 'colonies', and
2. formed alliances and made treaties (foedera, in Latin) with others.

The Romans considered the Italians foreigners, but gave them certain rights depending on the nature of the alliance.

Treaties of the Italian Allies of Rome
Foederati & Socii

Foederati:

Allies might be civitates foederatae 'federated [and treatied] states'. Foedus is the Latin for treaty; foedera, the plural. In such cases, the terms of the foedus were spelled out. Such allies were exempt from Roman taxes.

Socii:

Allies might be socii Italici 'Italian allies'. Socius is the Latin for ally; socii, the plural. Baronowski says Livy sometimes uses the term socius for states (sometimes, societates) without a foedus 'treaty'. These socii enjoyed the rights of commercium 'trade' and connubium 'legal marriage'.

The allies were expected to provide manpower for war for the Romans, but they were obliged to let Rome handle their foreign affairs.

This could be advantageous to the allies, or not.

The Social War

Over time, the socii Italici became dissatisfied with their second-class position. During the Social War (90-88 B.C.) -- also from the Latin socius -- the socii Italici fought for and acquired full Roman citizenship.

According to Cicero, before the Social War, all the Latins were foederati [Baronowski]. The foedera 'treaties' could endure after the granting of citizenship.

• See Roman Expansion for more on the Latins and the other peoples in the Italic peninsula.

Partial Autonomy of Italians Granted Roman Citizenship

Some communities that were incorporated into Rome retained limited rights. These municipia (whence, municipality, in English) were taxed and had to serve in the military, but were able to retain their local constitutions.

1. Municipia sine suffragio (sine suffragio ~ without the vote) were not allowed the right to vote in Roman elections, although they had other Roman rights. They are said to have had only private citizenship rights.
2. Municipia cum suffragio (cum suffragio ~ with the vote) had all the rights and obligations of Roman citizens. They had private and public citizenship rights.

References:

• _{From the Gracchi to Nero: a history of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68, by Howard Hayes Scullard}
• _{The Historical and Institutional Context of Roman Law," by George Mousourakis Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2003}
• _{"Roman Treaties with Communities of Citizens
  " Donald Walter Baronowski
  The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 38, No. 1 (1988), pp. 172-178}